Paradigm Shift from Modernism to Postmodernism Ways of Thinking

Modernism is a school of thought that is believed to have begun during the period of Renaissance. This movement marked the age of Enlightenment in the early 20th century, as it led to rejection of traditional ideals and principles. This philosophical term looked for new perspectives to act as foundation for their knowledge, that is, it aimed at disapproving the irrational and subjective mind of man.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Paradigm Shift from Modernism to Postmodernism Ways of Thinking specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It supported personal ideologies on issues like religious beliefs; for instance, one does not have to accept an idea because it is religious. Self consciousness was meant to assist in criticizing an idea, then arriving at a conclusion at last. In modernism, one has to identify, evaluate, criticize, and understand a concept, then, choose without external interference. The need for premises/ reasons to attain truth remained fundamental during this time (Johnson, 2007). Notably, Karl Marx (1818-1883), Charles Darwin (1809-1882) and Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) were influential thinkers during the modern era. Specifically, Freud invented the subconscious part of the mind, the superego, which helps in analyzing how one thinks, in other words, evaluating the correctness of the thinking. Together with the superego, were the Id and the ego. In addition, this concept of the subconscious mind dimension analyzes how people think about realistic situations/ideas and how we view our selves. Our thinking starts with the Id, where we do anything necessary to satisfy the impending need for survival (Sigmund Freud n.d.). The next level is the ego, which keeps us with the reality of external world, that is, the world consists of others and, therefore, we are not alone. The ego helps us to adapt to the physical environment and store our experiences. The above theory that a nalyzes the human consciousness was called the Psycho-Analysis. From these dimensions, Freud insisted that things should not be construed to be true as they appear, the reality lies beyond what we can physically see. Therefore, to unearth the truth we have to conduct some complex and perverted actions.Advertising Looking for critical writing on philosophy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Clearly, modernism tried to eliminate subjectivity as a means of thinking and arriving at conclusions. Modernism tried to eliminate fixed concepts and ideas on varied issues; therefore, one has to have reasons to support his/her claims. Moreover, in Freud’s Interpretation of Dreams 1900, he reveals that dreams have displaced meanings and abstract symbols that calls for an in depth analysis and recollection in order to find the true meanings or complete validity. His proclamation that one only dreams whatever he/she encounters in life sh ows that a human being is largely a product of his/her environment and experience. Freud links how the brain functions with the nature of dreams. Therefore, one should reflexively be aware of these biases in order to free himself/herself from them and aim to be objective in his/her decisions. In general, the society becomes increasingly more reflective and self-aware of new ideas. Markedly, modernism movement instituted inquisitive minds in people. It begins with self-doubt, which reveals the methodology of justifying mind consciousness in accepting truth (Johnson, 2007). However, the control of unconscious and irrational desires of human beings is contradictive to the enlightenment philosophy that supports man’s reasoning as guidance to truth, yet human beings are essentially irrational beings. This weakness of Freud’s assertion led to criticism of some philosophers like Anouchka Grose. He disagreed with Freud’s Oedipus complex of socialization claiming that it was quite embarrassing as this act increases immoral behaviours and it is universally forbidden. The French scholar Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) supported the existentialism themes in the middle of the 20th century through his pieces of work that touched on nothingness, freedom, alienation and boredom (Mastin, 2008). His cornerstones were the self and ethical interests. Therefore, he reflected on understanding the existence of man by using phenomenological methods. He characterised the human condition with drastic freedom and groundlessness (Mastin, 2008). In his book, Being Nothingness, he outlines various forms of consciousness that lie beyond people’s experience, which involves investigating what is meant to be human. To be conscious means that one must be conscious of something; therefore, the definition depends on another thing.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Paradigm Shift from Modernism to Postmodernism Ways of Thinking specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In an in depth study of human, he comes up with two types of beings, which are ‘for-itself’ and ‘in-itself’. The later signifies autonomy and non-relational manner. This methodology gives one the power to create an extrinsic self identity. Sartre’s work gave people freedom of creating values for their own lives. On the part of the ego, Sartre acknowledges the existence of consciousness of the world and the ego. Sartre proposes a high levelled procedure of understanding human consciousness, involving pre-reflective and reflective level. He further agrees that people tend to construe that the self is never present prior to a reflective consciousness (Mastin, 2008). When a person thinks of anything, he/she forms a picture in the mind. In case the picture does not exist, then, there does not exist a universal structure thus the intention to be conscious is still unsuccessful. Ethically, Sartre noted that conscious proceedings are spontaneous; therefore, emotional consciousness is pre-reflective consciousness. As a result, voluntary act is different from the pre-reflective act; it has the will, which exists in the reflective act. This complex way of thinking discloses the key to understanding of the self, which has negating powers in it. Upon reflection, instability within the self is created, leading to the lack of self identity. Surely, the methodology supported a complex and valid distinction between two transcendence phenomena of beings (Mastin, 2008). The two analyses of ‘for-itself’ and ‘in-itself’ reveal what is meant by being a human. Sartre’s philosophical methods give people an unlimited freedom of making varied choices, which are not due to their bad faith. But, the freedom has limitations, social and physical constraints. The life of an individual is similar to a project that is unfolding as one makes choices amidst the challenges that constrain the freedom. In the end, a proper coordination of facts and transcendences help disclose an authentic man. One has to avoid pitfalls like bad faith and exercise his/her freedom diligently to continue understanding the nature of consciousness.Advertising Looking for critical writing on philosophy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Man is what he makes of himself; he then realizes his existence first before using his ‘will’ in making choices that he/she can be held responsible for (Existentialism is a Humanism, n.d.). Since man cannot change everything, that is, power to change things is limited, despair arises. In addition, the future is fully controlled by someone else. Postmodernism is a recent school of thought that claims that there is no clear reality that can be known objectively; it a relativistic approach that does not depend on absolute truth and objectivity. However, its way of thinking proved that reality can be experienced through objectivity. Manifestly, modernism highly objected subjectivity in arriving at decisions. However, postmodernism does not agree with most of modernity aspects. Postmodernism believes in New Age thinking in arriving at truth (Introduction to Postmodern Philosophy, n.d.). Notably, after the renaissance, the use of scientific method changed the perception of un derstanding the world. Then enlightenment (modernism) followed. The doubts on the ability to understand reality objectively by David Hume led to some instability in modernism. This in turn led to transition from modernism to postmodernism. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) was instrumental in this transition, as he out rightly rejected Kant’s theory that believed that all people perceive the world (reality) similarly; he supported the objective truth. Philosophers had to first grapple with textual interpretation. On interpretation, the postmodernism philosophers agreed that objectivity cannot be applied in understanding the correct meaning of any written script. Therefore, meaning comes out through engagement in a dialogue with the original author. Again, there was a problem on whether language could objectively reveal the truth. Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951) concluded that this could not happen as language development is socially habituated; therefore, the truth is socially constructed, just like language. Modernism recognised humans’ capabilities to find solutions that had been perennial since the medieval times. In addition, it respected human rights of expression. It did not also define the limits of objectivism and reasoning. Postmodernism, on the other hand, came up to correct the already existing imbalance; for instance, by convincing us that we have a limited potential to comprehend and change the universe. In essence, postmodernism corrects the problems, but it over-corrects the problems (Introduction to Postmodern Philosophy, n.d.). In the 20th century Michel Foucault (1926-1984) was among the great philosophical figures who defined the key issues of postmodernism. For example, a close scrutiny of the correspondence theory of truth that made people believe that scientific truths were equal to absolute truths was altered by removing the equivalency since no scientific researcher made an unlimited number of observations to show that such exceptions exist. Postmodernism, actually, helps man in knowing that knowledge acquisition and explanations have limits. This reveals the cause for the drastic shift from modernism to postmodernism. Further, it holds on the coherence theory of truth, which supports that an idea remains true to man if it also coheres with other internal perceptions that man holds about the world (Introduction to Postmodern Philosophy, n.d.). Nonetheless, scientists can still invent new methods of making people understand how the world works. For example, just as the discovery of the spherical nature of the earth was disapproved, early scientists believed that the earth is flat. Although postmodernism overreacts on the coherence theory, the philosophers were correct in summing up that correspondence theory has its boundaries, being contrary to what modernism held. Postmodernism promoted the willingness to borrow information from earlier movements and openness to diverse ideas from all places. It did n ot hold fixed definition to all terms. This movement promotes self-thinking, which can make people rebel following a defined curriculum and divert to their own understandings. Social epoch affects one’s way of thinking. For example, sociologists make assumptions that humans have room to make their own choices and that social forces can shape the behaviour of people within a society. Clearly, social environments influence the way one thinks and possible course of action. In the 18th century, Western Europe underwent social and technical changes that forever changed the whole world. For example, the invention of steam engine by James Watt in the year 1769 and invention of antiseptic barrier by Joseph Lister in 1865 impelled social changes in the entire world with the aim of solving some social and economic problems (Epochs in Philosophy and Socio-Economic Epochs, 2010). Remarkably, this social group altered people’s thinking towards looking for solutions to the then worl d problems since massive inventions took place during the 18th and 19th centuries. Later, industrial revolution took centre stage in Britain, which prompted rural urban migration of people to secure jobs in the newly created industries. This shows how social epoch affects the way of thinking of human beings in the entire world. From the historical perspective of the epoch, the global problems seem to be similar. A historical problem/issue will divert people’s attention in order to find solutions to it. For example, researchers on HIV/AIDS have been receiving support from other new researchers who aim at discovering the new drug that can cure the disease (Epochs in Philosophy and Socio-Economic Epochs, 2010). The research has influenced the thinking of doctors, medical lecturers and their students from a historical perspective. Both the social and historical epoch increases the thinking perspectives in the philosophical aspect, since every research has to be doubted, tested, u nderstood, and then approved/verified for application in its respective field. Lastly, philosophical theories also base their assumptions on the culture or history of any given group. References Epochs in Philosophy and Socio-Economic Epochs 2010, Problems of the History of Philosophy, http://leninist.biz/en/1973/PHP462/7.2-Epochs.in.Philosophy.and.Socio-Economic.Epochs. Existentialism is a Humanism n.d., alexvermeer.com — understanding and mastering our brains to do cool stuff, http://alexvermeer.com/%E2%80%9Cexistentialism-is-a-humanism%E2%80%9D-by-jean-paul-sartre/. Introduction to Postmodern Philosophy n.d., Postmodern preaching, http://www.postmodernpreaching.net/philosophy.htm. Johnson, L 2007, The Enlightenment to Modernism: A Brief Examination of this Revolution in Thought and Society, Socyberty | Society on the Web, http://socyberty.com/philosophy/the-enlightenment-to-modernism-a-brief-examination-of-this-revolution-in-thought-and-society/. Mastin, L 2008, Existenti alism: By Movement / School, The Basics of Philosophy: A huge subject broken down into manageable chunks, http://www.philosophybasics.com/movements_existentialism.html. Postmodernism: Philosophy n.d., Britannica Online Encyclopedia, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1077292/postmodernism. Sigmund Freud n.d., Letters, Arts Social Sciences, http://www.class.uidaho.edu/engl_258/Lecture%20Notes/freud%20dreams.htm. This critical writing on Paradigm Shift from Modernism to Postmodernism Ways of Thinking was written and submitted by user Mya K. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Scientific and Social Definitions of Race

Scientific and Social Definitions of Race Its a common belief that race can be broken down into three categories: Negroid, Mongoloid and Caucasoid. But according to science, thats not so. While the American concept of race took off in the late 1600s and persists even today, researchers now argue that there’s no scientific basis for race. So, what exactly is race, and what are its origins? The Difficulty of Grouping People Into Races According to John H. Relethford, author of The Fundamentals of Biological Anthropology, race â€Å"is a group of populations that share some biological characteristics†¦.These populations differ from other groups of populations according to these characteristics.† Scientists can divide some organisms into racial categories easier than others, such as those which remain isolated from one another in different environments. In contrast, the race concept doesn’t work so well with humans. That’s because not only do humans live in a wide range of environments, they also travel back and forth between them. As a result, there’s a high degree of gene flow among people groups that make it hard to organize them into discrete categories. Skin color remains a primary trait Westerners use to place people into racial groups. However, someone of African descent may be the same skin shade as someone of Asian descent. Someone of Asian descent may be the same shade as someone of European descent. Where does one race end and another begin? In addition to skin color, features such as hair texture and face shape have been used to classify people into races. But many people groups cannot be categorized as Caucasoid, Negroid or Mongoloid, the defunct terms used for the so-called three races. Take Native Australians, for instance. Although typically dark-skinned, they tend to have curly hair which is often light colored. â€Å"On the basis of skin color, we might be tempted to label these people as African, but on the basis of hair and facial shape they might be classified as European,† Relethford writes. â€Å"One approach has been to create a fourth category, the ‘Australoid.’† Why else is grouping people by race difficult? The concept of race posits that more genetic variation exists interracially than intra-racially  when the opposite is true. Only about 10 percent of variation in humans exists between the so-called races. So, how did the concept of race take off in the West, particularly in the United States? The Origins of Race in America The America of the early 17th century was in many ways more progressive in its treatment of blacks than the country would be for decades to come. In the early 1600s, African Americans could trade, take part in court cases and acquire land. Slavery based on race did not yet exist. â€Å"There was really no such thing as race then,† explained anthropologist Audrey Smedley, author of Race in North America: Origins of a Worldview, in a 2003 PBS interview. â€Å"Although ‘race’ was used as a categorizing term in the English language, like ‘type’ or ‘sort’ or ‘kind, it did not refer to human beings as groups.† While race-based slavery wasn’t a practice, indentured servitude was. Such servants tended to be overwhelmingly European. Altogether, more Irish people lived in servitude in America than Africans. Plus, when African and European servants lived together, their difference in skin color did not surface as a barrier. â€Å"They played together, they drank together, they slept together†¦The first mulatto child was born in 1620 (one year after the arrival of the first Africans),† Smedley noted. On many occasions, members of the servant class- European, African and mixed-race- rebelled against the ruling landowners. Fearful that a united servant population would usurp their power, the landowners distinguished Africans from other servants, passing laws that stripped those of African or Native American  descent of rights. During this period, the number of servants from Europe declined, and the number of servants from Africa rose. Africans were skilled in trades such as farming, building, and metalwork that made them desired servants. Before long, Africans were viewed exclusively as slaves and, as a result, sub-human. As for Native Americans, they were regarded with great curiosity by the Europeans, who surmised that they descended from the lost tribes of Israel, explained historian Theda Perdue, author of Mixed Blood Indians: Racial Construction in the Early South, in a PBS interview. This belief meant that Native Americans were essentially the same as Europeans. They’d simply adopted a different way of life because they’d been separated from Europeans, Perdue posits. â€Å"People in the 17th century†¦were more likely to distinguish between Christians and heathens than they were between people of color and people who were white†¦,† Perdue said. Christian conversion could make American Indians fully human, they thought. But as Europeans strove to convert and assimilate Natives, all the while seizing their land, efforts were underway to provide a scientific rationale for Africans’ alleged inferiority to Europeans. In the 1800s, Dr. Samuel Morton argued that physical differences between races could be measured, most notably by brain size. Morton’s successor in this field, Louis Agassiz, began â€Å"arguing that blacks are not only inferior but they’re a separate species altogether,† Smedley said. Wrapping Up Thanks to scientific advances, we can now say definitively that individuals such as Morton and Aggasiz are wrong. Race is fluid and thus difficult to pinpoint scientifically. â€Å"Race is a concept of human minds, not of nature,† Relethford writes. Unfortunately, this view hasn’t completely caught on outside of scientific circles. Still, there are signs times have changed. In 2000, the U.S. Census allowed Americans to identify as multiracial for the first time. With this shift, the nation allowed its citizens to blur the lines between the so-called races, paving the way for a future when such classifications no longer exist.​

An analysis of an aspect of human culture from an anthropological Essay - 1

An analysis of an aspect of human culture from an anthropological viewpoint - Essay Example A close observation of history proves that ethnicity does not always lead to conflicts in society. However, when certain situations arise, conflicts occur out of ethnicity. In fact, nationalism too is the result of this feeling of ethnicity. Nationalism occurs when one group feels that a nation is essential for them. This makes the people assemble their ethnic identity and shared historical experience in national terms. Thus, what happens over time is nationalism born out of ethnicity makes a submissive group into an ethno-political group. On 7th June 2001, Matthew Duss of Center for American Progress reported that Israel- Palestine conflict is still a hot-button issue in the Middle East politics. Here, it seems that a look into the above ideology of Eller will prove how ethnicity is converted into nationalism and then to conflict. For example, until the First Intifida, Palestinians were just a non-nationalist ethnic group. However, the 1967 Arab-Israel war played a major role in con verting the passive feeling of culture in Palestinians into an active political force. As the West Bank and Gaza Strip were occupied by Israel, many leaders including Yasser Arafat helped the conversion of Palestinian cultural traits into an active ethno-political group in the Middle East. From the above, it becomes evident that cultural traits are converted to ethnicity when a group begins to acknowledge differences between them and other groups. In addition, this ethnicity is converted into nationalism when an ethnic group begins to mobilize behind the idea of a nation. In simple terms, according to Scholars like Eller, once a group becomes self-conscious about their difference within society, which occurred in Palestinians as a result of the injustice inflicted upon them by their counterparts, there is the initiation of group mobilization. In the case of Israel-Palestine conflict, there are two groups; the Jews and the Palestinians. The Jewish people were already motivated and fu lly aware about the need to have their own nation as a result of the torture they faced in Western nations. It took some time for the Palestinians to acknowledge their need to have a separate nation as there were prior triggers that promoted this ethnic identity. From the point of group mobilization, the group is not merely an ethnic group; instead, it becomes a nationalist group. Now, a look into the history of Israel-Palestine conflict will justify the ideology. Palestine was a land which had no internal conflicts despite the presence of a multi-cultural society. The presence of Muslims in the population was 86%, that of Christians was 10%, and that of Jewish was 4%. Here, one should remember the fact that despite this multicultural presence, there was no feeling of ethnicity, or was not aroused by any cause. However, by the end of 1800, Jewish settlers from Europe, known as Zionists reached Palestine with the intention to make that place their homeland; still the place was calm f or a long time. As Hitler rose to power and Jewish activities were sabotaged in Western countries, more and more Jews reached Palestine openly expressing their interest in making Palestine their homeland. Here, the local populace got concerned, and, as a result, issues broke out. Soon, there was widespread violence throughout the region. As there was more and more violence, UN intervened and proposed an evidently unjustifiable solution; 55% of Palestine for Jews, and the remaining for Palestine. In 1947, war erupted between five Arab nations on the one side

World History. The risk to the Middle East and the US of a nuclear Essay

World History. The risk to the Middle East and the US of a nuclear Islamic Iran - Essay Example Speculation based on past history since the 1948 Israeli independence and first Arab Israeli war. Without question, a nuclear armed Iran would have serious implications for the region. In an article by Sanger (2010) it was postulated that in the case of China a containment strategy was utilized (Not actively engaging in a nuclear war but deterring its dangerous moves). Ultimately, at the moment most Americans are more worried about a trillion-dollar debt rather than the nuclear arsenal that the East Asian nation posses. However the debate rages of the risks associated a containment strategy with Iran. Over the years Iran has seen a significant increase in its domestic energy demands, which places a significant strain on the amount of oil that can be used for export. Under this guise, the nation has suggested that it would like the capacity to generate electricity thought the use of nuclear power plants. Whilst this may seem like an innocent enough proposition it remains the case that this action could bring with it a nuclear armament. According to Fathi (2005) it is the case that the President of Iran, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad has stated at the annual anti-Israel demonstration that â€Å"Israel must be wiped off the map.†

Price Elasticity of Demand and Monopolistic Competition

Price Elasticity of Demand and Monopolistic Competition The Price Elasticity of demand is inversely related to excess capacity in the monopolistic competitive market – Discuss Before we even dwell and discuss on the abovementioned topic, it would vital for us to understand and define what Price Elasticity of Demand, Excess Capacity and Monopolistic Competitive Market are all about from the economic perspective. By understanding the aforementioned than only we would be able to discuss and deliberate the abovementioned topic in detail. Elasticity From the economics perspective based on journal and article in Wikipedia, elasticity can be defined as the measurement of how receptive or responsive an economic variable is, to a change of the other. For example: If we lower or reduce the price of our product, how much more will it be sold? If we raise or increase the price of one product, how will that affect sales of the other product? If we learn that a resource is becoming infrequent or limited, will people rush to acquire it? We can further elaborate that an elastic variable (or elasticity value greater than 1) is one which responds more than proportionately to changes in other variables. On the other hand, an inelastic variable (or elasticity value less than 1) is one which changes less than proportionately in response to changes in other variables. Elasticity can be measured as the ratio of the percentage change in one variable to the percentage change in another variable, when the latter variable has a fundamental influence on the former. It is a tool for measuring the responsiveness of a variable, or of the function that determines it, to changes in contributory variables. Frequently used elasticities include price elasticity of demand, price elasticity of supply, income elasticity of demand, elasticity of substitution between factors of production and elasticity of substitution. Elasticity is one of the most vital concepts in a traditional economic theory. It is valuable in understanding the rate of indirect taxation, marginal concepts as they relate to the company, and distribution of wealth and different types of goods as they relate to the theory of consumer choice. Elasticity is also crucially imperative in any discussion of welfare distribution, in particular consumer surplus, producer surplus, or government surplus. In a pragmatic work environment, an elasticity is the estimated coefficient in a linear regression equation where both the dependent variable and the independent variable are in natural logs. Elasticity is a common tool amongst observers because it is independent of units and thus simplifies data analysis. Price Elasticity of Demand On the other hand, according to Alfred Marshall, Price elasticity of demand (PED or Ed) is a measurement used in economics to illustrate the responsiveness or elasticity, of the quantity demanded of a good or service to a change in its price. More accurately, it gives the percentage change in quantity demanded in response to a one percent change in price (ceteris paribus, i.e. holding constant all the other determinants of demand, such as income). Price elasticities are almost always negative, although analysts tend to ignore the sign even though this can lead to uncertainty. Only goods which do not conform to the law of demand, have a positive PED. Generally, the demand for a good is said to be inelastic (or relatively inelastic) when the PED is less than one (in absolute value): that is, changes in price have a relatively small effect on the quantity of the good demanded. The demand for a good is said to be elastic (or relatively elastic) when its PED is greater than one (in absolute value): that is, changes in price have a relatively large effect on the quantity of a good demanded. Revenue is maximized when price is determined so that the PED is exactly one. The PED of a good can also be used to predict the rate of a tax on that good. Various research approaches are used to determine price elasticity, including test markets, analysis of historical sales data and conjoint analysis. Nevertheless, according to Professor Dominick Salvatore in its book, Managerial Economics – Principle and Worldwide Application, mentioned that â€Å"Sometimes, lowering the price of the commodity or products increases sales sufficiently to increase total revenues. At other times, lowering the commodity or products prices reduces the firm’s total revenues†. Thus, lowering the price of a particular products will not necessarily increase the total profitability of a company. This is due to the fact that it also have an impact on the production cost. Therefore, we can also say that the higher the price elasticity, the more sensitive consumers are to price changes. A very high price elasticity indicates that when the price of a good increase, consumers will buy less of the items and when the price of that good falls, consumers will buy more. A very low price elasticity suggests the opposite, that changes in price have slight influence on demand. As such, it is imperative for a company to really understand the economics and the concept of PED before any decision is made for a price review or for a pricing strategy. Excess Capacity Meanwhile, Excess Capacity, based on our reading, as defined in Wikipedia is a situation in which actual production is less than what is achievable or optimal for a company. This often means that the demand in the market for the product is below what the firm could potentially supply to the market. The amount of excess capacity within an industry is a signal of both the performance of that industry and the demand for the products it produces. Excess capacity is also seen as a good thing for consumers, as it is not likely to lead to the price inflation that would be seen in periods of near-full capacity. A company with sizable excess capacity can often lose a considerable amount of money if it is not able to meet the high fixed costs that are associated with producers. In other words, it could also be the case that in the long run, the production is operating not at the lowest of its long run average cost curve. Instead, it is operating on a gauge that is smaller and less efficient which the company has, in fact, a capacity to produce more at a lower average cost. , each firm is serving a market that is too small, and there are too many firms, so that the product group as a whole has the capacity to serve more customers than there are. Excess capacity exists when marginal cost is less than average cost and it is still possible to decrease average (unit) cost by producing more goods and services. Excess capacity may be measured as the increase in the current level of output that is required to reduce unit costs of production to a minimum. Excess capacity may also arise because as demand increases, firms have to invest and expand capacity in uneven or inseparable portions. Company may also choose to maintain excess capacity as a part of a deliberate strategy to deter or prevent entry of new firms. Monopolistic Competitive Market Monopolistic competition from economic perspective is a category of imperfect competition such that many producers sell products that are different from one another as goods but not perfect substitutes (such as from branding, quality, or price). In monopolistic competition, a firm takes the prices charged by its competitors as given and ignores the impact of its own prices on the prices of other company. In the presence of strong government, monopolistic competition will fall into government-granted monopoly. Unlike perfect competition, the firm maintains spare capacity. Models of monopolistic competition are often used to model industries. Examples of industries with market structures similar to monopolistic competition include restaurants, cereal, clothing, shoes, and service industries in large cities. The founding father of the theory of monopolistic competition is Edward Hastings Chamberlin, who wrote a pioneering book on the subject, Theory of Monopolistic Competition. Joan Rob inson published a book The Economics of Imperfect Competition with a comparable theme of distinguishing perfect from imperfect competition. The characteristic of a monopolistic competitive markets are as follow: There are many producers and many consumers in the market, and no business has total control over the market price. Consumers perceive that there are non-price differences among the competitors products. There are few barriers to entry and exit. Producers have a degree of control over price. In the long-run characteristics of a monopolistically competitive market are almost the same as a perfectly competitive market. Two differences between the two are that monopolistic competition produces diverse products and that monopolistic competition involves a great deal of non-price competition, which is based on subtle product differentiation. A firm making profits in the short run will nonetheless only break even in the long run because demand will decrease and average total cost will increase. This means in the long run, a monopolistically competitive firm will make zero economic profit. This illustrates the amount of influence the firm has over the market; because of brand loyalty, it can raise its prices without losing all of its customers. This means that an individual firms demand curve is downward sloping, in contrast to perfect competition, which has a perfectly elastic demand schedule. Differences between Perfect and Monopolistic Competition To show that the PED is inversely related to excess capacity in the monopolistic competitive market, in this discussion, we will be comparing mostly between perfect competitive market and monopolistic competitive market which is also an imperfect market. There are two main differences between perfect competition and monopolistic competition. First is excess capacity; in perfect competition, firms usually will produce a product up to the maximum capacity of its production to get the lowest average total cost, ATC. Meanwhile in monopolistic competition, the firms will have an excess capacity if they produce less than the quantity at which average total cost is at minimum; which if they lower the price, they could sell more but they might producing at a point where their cost will exceed their revenue. The second differences are mark-up. In perfect competition, P=MC, but in monopolistic competition, P > MC because of its marked up. The marked up is because of the price discrimination which use by the firms in monopolistic market. Price and Output in Monopolistic Competition First of all, let us look at the factors affecting the PED. As we can see, in monopolistic competition market, there are high numbers of substitutes available for the products that produce by the firms. This is because each of the firms produce similar product but not identical. Because of this, the market has a greater PED. Any changes in price will make a possibility of consumer to change their demand for other substitute products. This is why, monopolistic market are also called price searcher market, as they are actually looking for the best price for their product. Since the firms produce similar product, they cannot fight their price using the ATC, where they cannot produce more than they can sell. They can only produce the quantity at which the marginal revenue is equal to the marginal cost. Can we say that monopolistic competition is inefficient? Yes, because in monopolistic competition P > MC, marginal benefits is larger than marginal cost. In order to reach the highest possible profit, firms competing in three important area of product differentiation, which is the quality, price and marketing. The quality of the product is just not only about the reliability of the product, but also about the design and the services, more on the after sales services. Using this quality aspect, firms can do the price discrimination, which differentiated their product with other product. However there is a trade off between prices and quality. The lower the price, the lower the product quality can be. As to further increase the sales, firms have to do a good product packaging and advertising. Since consumer value a variety, and variety is a cost, it is reasonable for the firms to price discriminate other products. However in monopolistic market, since no barrier to entry and exit from the market, firms have to be careful not to gain high profit in the long run as it can attract new competitors into the market. Product Development and Marketing Since monopolistic firms need to maintain their economic profit, in the condition of high ATC, there are needs to keep and sustain a continuous product development. In the market where the competitors are always looking for new innovation, new technology and attractable product, they need to be in line with the up to date trend of consumers. New product development would allow a firm to gain a competitive advantage, even sometimes temporarily before competitors imitate the innovation. Looking at the scenario where competitors usually keep imitate the new innovation produce, it might cross our mind why firms need to be the innovation leaders since after that the competitors will had it imitate. The innovation cost are high compare to imitate cost, but the benefit as innovation leaders have a value to consumer and also would increases total revenue. Firms usually will pursue product development until their marginal revenue from innovation equals to the marginal cost of innovation. As a human, consumer have a natural willing feeling to pay higher for the products that have a high value to them, even sometimes the price is ridiculous. The marginal social benefit of an innovation is the increase of price to the product and also a marginal social cost to the firms for the cost of innovation. Basically, the profit is maximized when MR=MC, but in monopolistic competition P>MR. Because of that, amount of innovation is less than efficient. Compare to the perfect competition market, monopolistic market have a higher selling cost since they need to spend a lot on promoting the uniqueness of their product compare to other substitutes product. The increase in selling cost will increase ATC at any level of output, but would not affect the MC of production. If their effort in promotion and advertising increases the demand of the product, then they are considered success. This is the cost that the monopolistic firms have to pay, to reduce their excess capacity, by increasing the demand of the products. But advertising is not only use to promote the variety and the uniqueness of the product, but also sometimes use to remind the market of their high quality product. Conclusion From the comparison that we highlight between perfect competition market and monopolistic competitive market, we can see the relation between the increasing of selling cost, increase of demand and reduced in excess capacity. When the firm concentrate in having a continuous product development with greater advertising and promotion effort, they can increase the demand of the product which in turn inversely reduce the excess capacity of the firms.

Us Compared to Germany

I chose to compare the United States (U. S. ) healthcare system with Germany. I chose Germany because I know very little about this country, especially its healthcare system. The biggest difference I noted  is  that Germany has a universal healthcare system, whereas the U. S. does not. The people of Germany contribute 8% of their  earnings towards healthcare. The top 10% who make  more than $72,000 a year pay more for health coverage, but receive  more prompt and extra services (Lanier, 2008).Another difference I noted is that in Germany, there is no discrimination  when it comes to certain illness and  age (Lanier, 2008). The heath coverage covers  everyone no matter how sick or old they are. In  America, chronically ill individuals, at times, find it hard to  find an insurance company to  accept them. When they do, the coverage is usually at a much higher rate than  that of a  younger, healthier person. In Germany, there is quicker access to care.There is no long waiting period for surgery or procedures and it does not take weeks or months to see a physician like in the U. S. (Lanier, 2008). Many assume that there would be a longer waiting period in a country that has universal healthcare, but this isn't the case in Germany. America has the most costly healthcare system in the world, yet underperforms compared to many other countries including Germany (Davis, 2007). Some of the areas that the U. S. ranks last on are access, safety, and efficiency.Germany spends less on healthcare, yet performs higher in these areas. Davis, K. (2007, may 15). Mirror, mirror on the wall: an international update on the comparative performance of american health care. Retrieved from http://www. commonwealthfund. org/Content/Publications/Fund-Reports/2007/May/Mirror–Mirror-on-the-Wall–An-International-Update-on-the-Comparative-Performance-of-American-Healt. aspx Lanier, S. (2008, July 29). Healthcare: germany vs america. Retrieved from http: //www. health-insurance-carriers. com/blog/health-care-germany-vs-america/

Sociology Reflective Essay

‘Social Stratification is the division of large numbers of people into layers according to their relative property, power, and prestige; applies to both nations and to people within a nation, society, or other group. ’ (Henslin, James,2011) There are basically four systems to socially stratify a family. Social class, as one of the systems will be investigated in the following paragraphs. (1) Identification of my family’s social class position and explanations of it: Social class is fundamentally determined by how much wealth you have.Income, education and gender are three major factors that I would consider to determine my family’s social class position. Concisely speaking, I came from a single-parent family which I only live with my mother. My mother is the only person who is officially employed in my family. Her occupation is a salesperson at a beauty centre with unstable income. One other important financial income of our family will be the alimony given from my father who no longer lives with us. Our household income per month is about $10,000. According to the 2006 Population By-census, the median monthly domestic household income (at current prices) was $ 17,250.Although there are only two people in my family, our monthly income is nearly 40% below the median figure in 2006. Individually, my mother does not receive stable income so her monthly income tends to be lower than the median monthly income of an employed individual of $ 10,000. In conclusion, my family’s income is comparably low; especially the data was collected in 2006 which inflation has already been excluded. Education is counted as an essential factor determining social class as it’s believed that well-educated people can always get well-pay jobs with comfortable working environments.As mentioned in the 2006 Population By-census report, people with higher educational attainment generally have higher income than less educated ones. Also, in the past fe w decades, only economically sufficient families could provide educations for their children. There are many middle-aged people nowadays do not have high-school qualifications. Thus, in the past few decades, the more educated a person was, the wealthier his/ her family would be. My mother did not finish high-school education while I have just started my university study. Finally, a very special factor—gender, is considered. ‘Gender is a basis for social stratification. (Henslin, James, 2011) All of us in a family are both females. Even though people in modern world advocate gender equality, women still suffer from gender inequality. Stated in the report of the 2006 Population By-census, the median monthly income from main employment of working men was higher than that of working women by some 30% during 1996–2006. Other than income, clothing, right to divorce and education are restricted in some Middle East countries (e. g. Iran). Hong Kong seems t o be a liberal city but there are still some deep-root traditions and thoughts that limit the social mobility of females.Due to gender inequality, my mother was not allowed to attend high school and she is forced to receive lower pay comparing to her male colleagues with same working titles. To conclude, I would say gender serves as a force that aid pushing down my family’s social status. After the considerations of all these factors, I would place my family as working class or sometimes lower class. In term of Marx’s theory, my family would be the proletariat (workers). In term of Weber’s theory which considers three components of social class, I would still place my family as working or lower class. 2) Prediction of my own social class when I am 40 years old and the possible difference between my current family social class position and the future: It is extremely hard to predict my own social position when I am 40 years old which will be approximately two decades later as our world is never predictable. Nonetheless, if everything reminds unchanged in our world, I will be a clinical psychologist or at least graduate with bachelor degree. Ideally, I will be working for the government as a professional with ‘Iron Rice Bowl’. The salary I get will be higher than average.According to the report on salary scale of common posts in the non-governmental organizations, the monthly salary of a clinical psychologist was $ 30,615 in 2009 which was 2 times higher than the median monthly income in 2006. In 20 years time, my mother will be retired hopefully and I will be the only financial support at home. My occupation, wealth, education level and income will be the main indicators to identify my social position in our society. According to Marx, I remain a proletariat who lacks of class consciousness as I do not perceive an occupation as a clinical psychologist as an exploited worker.According to Wright, I may be on the level of managers or still work ers. I guess I will not own any means of production or labor power but I hope I can still own control over investments or money capital (e. g. a flat unit). In short, from both Marx’s and Wright’s view, my social position will not differ a lot from my family’s current social class position. However, I doubt that their views are relatively simplistic and out-dated so I prefer Weber’s three components of social class (property, power and prestige). At the age of 40, as a professional, I may have a secretary which means I gain power on controlling my subordinates at work.Also, prestige sounds more achievable as a professional with more respects. From his perspective, I may achieve vertical mobility and move to a higher-rank social position comparing to my family’s current social class position. Generally, I believe being a clinical psychologist can upgrade myself from a lower/working class to lower middle class. However, the above assumptions are made under the circumstances that nothing has changed. In my own opinion, there are some essential factors that I have to consider. For examples, the prestige and income I will get for being a clinical psychologist may not be that much as in the past.This is because studying in universities is very common; getting a university degree will be easier than the past. Potentially, there will be more clinical psychologists in Hong Kong and salaries will be lowered when there are sufficient supplies. (3) Considerations of all advantages and/or disadvantages my family’s current social class position provides or poses in helping to determine the social class to which I see myself belonging when I am forty years old: First of all, I would like to state some of the disadvantages at the beginning.Income is an important indicator determining class position. However, my mother’s income can be very unstable (as a typical factor of local working class). She can earn quite a lot this month but earn nothing in the following month. A few years ago while there was a structural change in the industry that I have considered not to continue my study but to work in order to support my family’s expenses. This kind of consideration may appear again if the economic condition is really bad.Although the possibility is very low, income uncertainty can still block my sights from determining my future social class which is possibly determined by my education level. Also, social class is likely to be intergenerational so I am very likely to be part of the working/ lower class but not what I have expected in part (2). One significant advantage is that being a part of the lower/working class provides very strong motivation for me to study harder and move to the middle class rank in the future.When being a part of the middle class becomes my goal, I can easily conclude what social position I will be in my 40s. References: (1) Thematic Report :Household Income Distributionin Hong Kong 2006 Population By-census http://www. statistics. gov. hk/publication/stat_report/population/B11200452006XXXXB0401. pdf (2) Salary Scale of Common Posts in the Non-governmental Organizations w. e. f 1. 4. 2009 http://www. swd. gov. hk/doc/ngo/Salary%20Scale%20of%20Common%20Posts%20wef%201%204%202009. pdf (3) Sociology: A Down-to-Earth Approach (Henslin, James,2011)